Discuss how the changes in forest management in the colonial period affected the following groups of people:

• Shifting cultivators
• Nomadic and pastoralist communities
• Firms trading in timber/forest produce
• Plantation owners
• Kings/British officials engaged in shikar (hunting)

What are the similarities between colonial management of the forests in Bastar and in Java?

Between 1880 and 1920, forest cover in the Indian subcontinent declined by 9.7 million hectares, from 108.6 million hectares to 98.9 million hectares. Discuss the role of the following factors in this decline:

• Railways
• Shipbuilding
• Commercial farming
• Tea/Coffee plantations
• Adivasis and other peasant users

Why are forests affected by wars?